ADMN 201 — Ch14: Money and Banking
Learning Objectives Overview
| LO | Objective | Key Concept Page |
|---|---|---|
| 14.1 | Define money and identify its forms in Canada’s money supply | Money |
| 14.2 | Understand the financial institutions in the Canadian financial system | CharteredBanks |
| 14.3 | Explain the Bank of Canada’s functions and monetary policy tools | BankOfCanada |
| 14.4 | Explain alternate banks, specialized intermediaries, and investment dealers | AlternateBanks, SpecializedLendingIntermediaries |
| 14.5 | Discuss international banking and finance institutions and activities | InternationalBankingAndFinance |
mindmap root((Ch14: Money & Banking)) LO 14.1 Money 4 Characteristics 3 Functions M-1 vs M-2 Credit ≠ Money Smart Card LO 14.2 Financial System 4 Pillars Schedule I vs II Banks Deposit Expansion Multiplier Reserve Requirement Dropped Deregulation LO 14.3 Bank of Canada Formed 1935 Bank Rate Open Market Ops Expansionary vs Restrictive LO 14.4 Alternate & Specialized Trust Companies Credit Unions Life Insurance Factoring / VC / Pension Investment Dealers LO 14.5 International Payments Process Law of One Price Big Mac Index World Bank IMF Bitcoin / Crypto
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LO 14.1 — What Is Money?
Money is anything generally accepted as payment for goods and services.
The 4 Characteristics of Money
For something to function as money, it must be all four of these:
| Characteristic | What it means | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Portable | Easy to carry | Can be used anywhere |
| Divisible | Can be broken into smaller units | Allows exact change for any transaction |
| Durable | Holds up over time | Doesn’t lose physical form before it’s spent |
| Stable | Holds value over time | People will save it rather than spend it immediately |
Example: Cattle fail all four — not portable, not divisible, not durable (they die), and not stable in value.
The 3 Functions of Money
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
| Medium of exchange | Accepted as payment, eliminating the need for barter |
| Store of value | Holds purchasing power over time so you can save it |
| Unit of account | Provides a common measure to price and compare goods/services |
Money Supply and Value
The value of money depends on its supply. When the money supply is high, the value of money drops. When the money supply is low, the value increases. This is why controlling the money supply matters for inflation.
Canada’s Money Supply: M-1 and M-2
- M-1 = most liquid forms only: currency (paper + coins) + demand deposits (chequing accounts). As of March 2021, M-1 ≈ $1.46 trillion in Canada.
- M-2 = M-1 + savings deposits + time deposits + money market mutual funds
Time deposit: Requires prior notice to withdraw; cannot be transferred to others by cheque.
Money market mutual funds: Pools of assets from many investors used to buy short-term, low-risk financial securities.
Credit Cards vs. Debit Cards
- Credit cards are not money — spending on credit creates a debt but does not move money until the bill is paid. They are a money substitute and are not included in M-1 or M-2.
- Debit cards are included in M-1 — they transfer money immediately from a chequing account.
Smart Card
A smart card is a credit card-sized plastic card with an embedded computer chip that can be loaded with “electronic money.” It functions differently from a credit card because the value is pre-loaded — it’s closer to digital cash.
LO 14.2 — The Canadian Financial System
The main function of all financial institutions is to move money from sectors with surpluses to those with deficits — attracting deposits and lending them out or investing them.
The Four Financial Pillars
- Chartered banks — largest; privately owned; main source of short-term business loans
- Alternate banks — trust companies + credit unions
- Specialized lending & savings intermediaries — life insurance, factors, VC firms, pension funds
- Investment dealers — securities industry
The boundaries between the four pillars have blurred significantly in recent decades. Banks can now own securities dealers, sell mutual funds, and issue commercial paper. Many trust companies have been absorbed by banks.
Financial Pillar #1 — Chartered Banks
A chartered bank is a privately owned, profit-seeking firm that serves individuals, businesses, and nonbusiness organizations as a financial intermediary.
- In March 2021, Canadian chartered banks held $4.34 trillion in assets.
- The Big Six (Royal Bank, CIBC, Bank of Montreal, Bank of Nova Scotia, TD Canada Trust, National Bank of Canada) hold ~90% of all bank assets.
- Canada has few banks with many branches — the opposite of the U.S. model (many small banks).
Schedule I vs. Schedule II Banks:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Schedule I | Canadian-owned; no single interest may control > 10% of voting shares |
| Schedule II | Domestically or foreign-owned but don’t meet the Schedule I requirement; foreign-controlled banks may hold deposits up to only 8% of total domestic bank assets |
Bank loans:
- Secured loan — backed by collateral (e.g., accounts receivable); if the borrower can’t repay, the bank sells the collateral.
- Unsecured loan — backed only by the borrower’s promise to repay. Only highly creditworthy borrowers qualify.
- Prime rate of interest — the lowest rate charged to borrowers; applies to large firms with excellent credit. All other rates are set relative to prime.
Banks as Creators of Money — Deposit Expansion
Banks don’t just hold money — they create it. Here’s how:
Suppose you deposit $100. The bank keeps a fraction in reserve and lends the rest out.
| Round | Deposit | Reserve (10%) | Amount Lent | Cumulative Supply |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | $100.00 | $10.00 | $90.00 | $190.00 |
| 2 | $90.00 | $9.00 | $81.00 | $271.00 |
| 3 | $81.00 | $8.10 | $72.90 | $343.90 |
| … | … | … | … | … |
| Total | — | — | — | ~$1,000.00 |
Your original 1,000 in new deposits** across the banking system (with a 10% reserve rate). This is the deposit expansion multiplier.
Important: Canada dropped the reserve requirement more than two decades ago. This means banks can theoretically create even more money — in practice, they keep reserves voluntarily because lending without any reserve is too risky.
Other Changes in Banking
Deregulation: Banks have diversified beyond their traditional role as deposit-and-loan intermediaries. They can now own securities dealers, establish subsidiaries to sell mutual funds, and sell commercial paper. This blurs the boundary between Pillar #1 and Pillar #4.
Changes in consumer demands: Many consumers turn to electronic banks (e.g., Tangerine) that pay higher savings interest because they don’t have branch costs. Traditional banks respond by adding digital services, chatbots, and accepting Apple Pay. Banks are shifting from interest-rate-spread profits toward fee-based profits.
Changes in international banking: Foreign banks are now permitted to operate in Canada, increasing competition. Canadian banks have responded by attempting mergers — but the federal government has blocked large bank mergers to protect competition and consumers. Instead, Canadian banks have grown by acquiring international assets.
LO 14.3 — The Bank of Canada
The Bank of Canada (formed 1935) is Canada’s central bank. It manages the Canadian economy, controls the money supply, and regulates certain aspects of chartered bank operations.
Governance: Managed by a board of governors consisting of a governor, a deputy governor, and 12 directors appointed from different regions across Canada.
Bank of Canada Monetary Policy Tools
The Bank of Canada uses two tools to control the money supply:
| Tool | Expansionary (↑ supply) | Restrictive (↓ supply) |
|---|---|---|
| Open market operations | Buy government securities → deposits flow into banks → bank reserves ↑ → more lending | Sell government securities → money flows out of banks → reserves ↓ → less lending |
| Bank rate | Lower it → cheaper for chartered banks to borrow → more lending → more money in circulation | Raise it → more expensive to borrow → less lending → money contracts |
Bank rate (rediscount rate) = the rate at which chartered banks borrow from the Bank of Canada. It anchors all other interest rates, including the prime rate.
The Chain Reaction
BoC bank rate ↑
→ Chartered banks' borrowing costs ↑
→ Consumer/business lending rates ↑
→ Borrowing and spending ↓
→ Inflation ↓
Recent Context
During COVID-19 (2020), the Bank of Canada dropped the bank rate by 1.5% in quick succession, bringing it to a near-zero 0.25% to stimulate the economy. The rate stayed at this record low until February 2022.
Canada’s reputation for sound monetary management is so strong that Iceland once considered adopting the Canadian dollar as its official currency.
LO 14.4 — Alternate Banks & Specialized Intermediaries
Financial Pillar #2 — Alternate Banks
Trust companies — safeguard funds and estates entrusted to them. Also serve as trustee, transfer agent, and registrar for corporations. Declining in importance; many have been acquired by banks.
Credit unions / caisses populaires — cooperative savings and lending associations formed by a group with common interests. Members can save, borrow short-term/long-term/mortgage funds, and invest in corporate and government securities. Mouvement Desjardins (7.5M members) is the largest federation of credit unions in North America.
Financial Pillar #3 — Specialized Lending and Savings Intermediaries
| Institution | What it does |
|---|---|
| Life insurance companies | Share risk via premiums; invest in mortgages and bonds. 2nd largest financial intermediary in Canada after chartered banks. Manulife is the largest Canadian insurer. |
| Factoring companies | Buy accounts receivable (AR) from firms at a discount; collect the full face value. The factor absorbs the risk of non-payment. |
| Sales finance companies | Finance instalment purchases (e.g., a car loan). The item purchased serves as collateral. Example: Ally Financial (formerly GM Acceptance Corp). |
| Consumer finance companies | Make personal loans to consumers, often with no collateral required. Do not lend to businesses. |
| Venture capital firms | Provide equity funding to new or expanding high-potential firms. May demand 50%+ ownership stake and a board seat in exchange for funding. |
| Pension funds | Accumulate contributions and invest them in stocks, bonds, and mortgages; pay out to subscribers at retirement. |
Financial Pillar #4 — Investment Dealers
Investment dealers buy and sell securities (stocks and bonds) on behalf of investors — they act as brokers/agents, not deposit-takers. They earn fees and commissions rather than interest-rate spreads. They operate in both:
- Primary markets — underwriting new share/bond issues
- Secondary markets — facilitating trading of existing securities
Regulated by IIROC (Investment Industry Regulatory Organization of Canada). Examples: RBC Dominion Securities, TD Waterhouse, BMO Nesbitt Burns.
LO 14.5 — International Banking and Finance
The International Payments Process
Electronic technology allows nearly instantaneous cross-border financial transactions. When a Canadian buyer pays a Spanish seller, their local bank converts Canadian dollars into euros. At the same time, payments flow in the opposite direction from Spanish buyers to Canadian sellers.
Key insight: If trade between two countries is in balance, money inflows and outflows cancel out — no actual currency needs to physically move. An imbalance requires actual currency flows to cover the difference.
Currency Valuation
Countries may deliberately devalue their currency to make their exports cheaper for other countries to buy — boosting export competitiveness.
The Law of One Price: Identical products should sell for the same price in all countries (once converted to a common currency). In practice, this is rarely perfectly true due to taxes, tariffs, and local costs.
The Big Mac Index (published annually by The Economist) applies the Law of One Price using McDonald’s Big Mac prices around the world to gauge whether currencies are overvalued or undervalued.
2021 Big Mac prices (in USD):
| Country | Price | Status |
|---|---|---|
| USA | $5.66 | Benchmark |
| Canada | $5.29 | Slightly undervalued (−6.6%) |
| Switzerland | $7.29 | Most overvalued (+28.8%) |
| Sweden | $6.37 | Overvalued (+12.6%) |
| Turkey | $2.01 | Heavily undervalued (−64.5%) |
| Russia | $1.81 | Heavily undervalued (−68%) |
The International Bank Structure
There is no single worldwide banking authority. Stability relies on loosely structured agreements between countries. Two key UN agencies support international trade:
World Bank:
- Provides a limited scope of financial services
- Funds national improvements in underdeveloped countries (roads, schools, hospitals, power plants)
- Goal: help borrowing countries increase their productive capacity
International Monetary Fund (IMF):
- 190 member nations with combined resources
- Four stated purposes:
- Promote stability of exchange rates
- Provide temporary, short-term loans to member countries
- Encourage members to cooperate on international monetary issues
- Encourage development of a system for international payments
- In 2021, the IMF had approximately $1 trillion available for loans
The IMF has faced criticism for its handling of crises (e.g., European debt crisis) — requiring austerity cuts that underestimated unemployment and economic damage. Some nations reject IMF conditions and refuse funding.
Cryptocurrency and International Payments
Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are increasingly used to make international payments outside the traditional banking system. Bitcoin is:
- Not backed by any central government
- Highly volatile in value (not a reliable store of value)
- Subject to concerns about money laundering, theft (e.g., Mt. Gox lost $425M to hackers), and environmental cost (mining uses as much electricity as ~3 million homes)
The role of cryptocurrency in international finance will be examined further in Chapter 15.
Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Money | Any object generally accepted as payment |
| Currency | Paper money and coins issued by the government |
| Cheque | An order instructing the bank to pay a sum to a specified person or firm |
| Debit Card | Transfers money immediately between accounts; included in M-1 |
| Smart Card | Card with embedded chip loaded with electronic money |
| M-1 | Only the most liquid forms of money (currency + demand deposits) |
| M-2 | M-1 + savings deposits + time deposits + money market mutual funds |
| Time Deposit | Deposit requiring prior notice to withdraw; can’t be transferred by cheque |
| Chartered Bank | Privately owned, profit-seeking financial intermediary |
| Prime Rate | The lowest lending rate; charged to most creditworthy borrowers |
| Bank of Canada | Canada’s central bank; formed 1935 |
| Bank Rate (Rediscount Rate) | Rate at which chartered banks borrow from the Bank of Canada |
| Trust Company | Safeguards funds/estates; serves as trustee, transfer agent, registrar |
| Credit Union / Caisse Populaire | Cooperative savings and lending association |
| Life Insurance Company | Shares risk with policyholders in exchange for premiums |
| Factoring Company | Buys AR at a discount; collects full face value |
| Sales Finance Company | Finances instalment purchases; item is the collateral |
| Consumer Finance Company | Makes personal loans to consumers |
| Venture Capital Firm | Provides equity funds for new/expanding high-potential firms |
| Pension Fund | Accumulates contributions; invests; pays out at retirement |
| Law of One Price | Identical products should sell for the same price in all countries |
| World Bank | UN agency funding national improvements in underdeveloped countries |
| IMF | UN agency (190 nations) promoting exchange rate stability and short-term loans |
Exam Nuggets & Mnemonics
- M.S.U. (Functions of Money): Medium of exchange · Store of value · Unit of account
- P.D.D.S. (Characteristics of Money): Portable · Divisible · Durable · Stable
- Bank of Canada tools = 2: Open Market Operations + Bank Rate. Buy securities / lower rate = expansionary. Sell securities / raise rate = restrictive.
- Deposit multiplier shortcut: With a 10% reserve rate, every 10 in total money supply. (1,000)
- Canada dropped reserve requirements decades ago — banks now create even more money, limited only by their own risk tolerance.
- 2008 Banking Stability: Canadian banks survived the global financial crisis due to strict federal regulation and the government blocking large bank mergers in the 1990s.
- Credit cards ≠ money. They are a money substitute — they defer payment and create debt. Not in M-1 or M-2.
- Schedule I = Canadian owned (no >10% single controller). Schedule II = domestically or foreign owned, doesn’t meet Schedule I.
Related Pages
Money, CharteredBanks, BankOfCanada, AlternateBanks, InternationalBankingAndFinance, ADMN201-Ch15